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Every distinction here has already been taught. Nothing in this section is new instruction. Find the page you need, check the decision or paired example, and return to the question. If a reference page takes more than about thirty seconds to use, it is too complicated.
Sentence boundaries: What stands on each side?
One-line question: What stands on each side of the boundary?
| Structure | What works | Fast check |
|---|---|---|
| Independent clause + independent clause | Period; semicolon; comma + coordinating conjunction when the conjunction fits. | Both sides can stand alone. |
| Dependent opener + independent clause | Usually comma after the opening dependent clause. | Opening piece cannot stand alone; main clause can. |
| One subject + two verbs | Usually no comma before the second verb. | After the conjunction, is there a new subject + finite verb + complete thought? |
| Complete clause + explanation/list/elaboration | Colon, or in suitable rhetoric a dash, after the complete setup. | Left side must be complete for a colon. |
| Inserted nonessential information | Matched commas, matched dashes, or parentheses. | Remove the insertion; core sentence remains and still identifies the same thing. |
| Fragment | Restore the missing main clause or finite structure; punctuation alone cannot repair it. | Find subject + finite verb + complete thought. |
Do not use: "Comma = pause." Do not treat semicolon, period, and comma + FANBOYS as interchangeable without checking the full wording and logical relation.
Punctuation: What job does the mark have?
One-line question: What job does this mark have here?
| Mark | Job | Requirement / trap |
|---|---|---|
| Comma | Introductory material, series, nonessential material, some clause joins with a coordinator. | Never insert merely because a long sentence feels like it pauses. |
| Paired commas | Set off a nonessential insertion. | If one side of the insertion is internal, the other side usually needs its partner. |
| Semicolon | Join closely related independent clauses; separate complex list items. | Independent clauses on both sides when used as a sentence join. |
| Colon | Introduce a list, example, explanation, or elaboration. | Complete sentence before it; do not place after a verb/preposition still awaiting its complement. |
| Dash | Mark a strong interruption, inserted material, or end-of-clause elaboration. | Use structure, not "stronger comma" folklore. |
| Parentheses | Set off material that is grammatically removable and relatively separate. | Do not mix with commas/dashes as a mismatched pair. |
| No punctuation | Essential attachment or uninterrupted sentence core. | Subject-verb, verb-object/complement, preposition-object, and modifier-target often must stay together. |
Do not use: Essential versus nonessential is not decided by removal alone. Ask whether the sentence still points to the same person or thing and preserves the intended identification.
Agreement, verbs, and modifiers: What controls the form?
One-line question: What actually governs this decision, not just what's nearby?
| Decision | Controller | Fast test |
|---|---|---|
| Verb number | True subject | Ignore intervening phrases/clauses; restore normal order if inverted. |
| Verb tense/form | Timeline + helping verb | Ask when the event occurs and what form the auxiliary requires. |
| Pronoun number/person | Exact antecedent | Name the noun the pronoun replaces. |
| Pronoun case | Grammatical role | Remove the other noun/pronoun in a compound; test he/him for who/whom. |
| Modifier | Word logically described | Opening modifier should point to the subject that follows; internal modifier should sit by its target. |
| Relative clause | Noun identified + role inside the clause | Which noun does the clause describe? Does who/whom/which/that fill the needed role? |
| Parallelism | Established grammatical pattern | Match noun with noun, -ing phrase with -ing phrase, clause with clause when equal items are coordinated. |
Do not use: Do not let the nearest noun take control merely because it is nearby.
Possession, comparisons, and usage: Which distinction matters?
One-line question: Which specific usage rule actually applies here?
| Distinction | Quick rule | Example check |
|---|---|---|
| Plural vs. possessive | First ask whether there is ownership/relationship. Plain plurals take no apostrophe. | students / student's / students' |
| Contraction vs. possessive pronoun | Expand the contraction. | it's = it is/has; its = possessive |
| Who vs. whom | Subject vs. object role. | he → who; him → whom |
| Reflexive | Use when it appropriately refers back to the subject, or for legitimate emphasis. | myself is not a formal substitute for me/I |
| Comparative vs. superlative | Comparative usually for two; superlative for a larger set. | better of two; best of three or more |
| Double comparison | Use one comparative/superlative marker. | clearer, not more clearer |
| Logical comparison | Compare equivalent categories. | the salary of A vs. that of B; A's books vs. those of B |
| Confused pair | Use part of speech + exact meaning + context. | affect/effect, allude/elude, imply/infer |
Wording choices: What meaning, degree, or tone changes?
One-line question: What dimension actually separates these two choices?
Concision ladder: correctness → meaning → required detail/qualification → logic → tone/register → then economy.
| If two choices differ by... | Ask... | Common trap |
|---|---|---|
| Length | Does the shorter choice preserve every needed idea? | Shortest-answer shortcut. |
| Precision | Which word states the exact relationship or action? | Vague but grammatical wording. |
| Strength | How strong is the evidence/context? | Overstatement or understatement. |
| Connotation | What attitude or association does the word carry? | Dictionary-synonym trap. |
| Register | What level of formality does the surrounding passage establish? | "More formal = better." |
| Voice | Which construction emphasizes the right actor/action and fits the context? | "Passive = wrong." |
Relevance and purpose: Does this sentence help the passage?
One-line question: Decide the action first, then find the reason that actually proves it.
| Question | Fast decision | Trap |
|---|---|---|
| Relevant? | Does it serve this paragraph's focus/job, not merely the broad topic? | True and interesting, but useless here. |
| Redundant? | Has this information already been given? | Confusing repetition with irrelevance. |
| Best support? | What does the paragraph still need? | Longest or most detailed choice. |
| Sentence purpose? | What job does the sentence perform here? | Paraphrasing content instead of function. |
| Stated goal? | List every part of the requested goal and check each one. | Broad topic match treated as goal completion. |
| Add/delete reason? | The reason must accurately describe the sentence and its role. | Right yes/no paired with a false rationale. |
Placement and transitions: What must come before and after?
One-line question: What does this sentence point back to, and what does it prepare or connect to next?
| Signal | Use it for | Do not stop at |
|---|---|---|
| this/these/such/they/that result | Finding the antecedent or prior idea. | The nearest matching noun only. |
| Dates/time markers | Chronology. | Topic similarity. |
| Cause/result language | Dependency order. | Sentence smoothness. |
| General claim + example | Keeping the illustration beside the claim. | Repeated vocabulary alone. |
| Problem + response | Keeping the response after the problem/question. | Paragraph length. |
| Contrast/concession | Positioning against the idea being qualified/contrasted. | Any nearby opposite-sounding sentence. |
| Paragraph bridge | Reading enough of both paragraphs to name the movement. | The last sentence of the prior paragraph only. |
Do not use: Transitions are not interchangeable within a category. Name the relationship first --- addition, contrast, concession, cause/result, example, sequence, condition, qualification --- then choose the word.
Main point and details: How much of the passage is the question asking about?
One-line question: What scale does this question actually operate at?
| Task | What to keep | Common wrong answer |
|---|---|---|
| Central idea | Subject + controlling development/point across the relevant passage. | Topic only; one paragraph only; broad life lesson. |
| Literary theme | Meaning that emerges from actions, conflict, relationship, or change. | A generic moral not earned by the passage. |
| Summary | Major development and important qualification. | Vivid minor detail; added judgment; wrong emphasis. |
| Explicit detail | The exact fact, often paraphrased. | A nearby but different detail. |
| Context detail | Read enough around the locator to capture qualification/reference. | Quoted-line-only reading. |
| Compound detail | Every component named by the stem. | A partial answer. |
Inference and scope: How far can the evidence take you?
One-line question: Does the answer's wording match the evidence's actual strength?
| Evidence says... | Answer may say... | Do not upgrade to... |
|---|---|---|
| may / could | possible / suggested | will / must / certain |
| supports | supports / strengthens | proves |
| associated with | associated / related | causes |
| one explanation | an explanation | the only explanation |
| some / several | some / several | most / all |
| observed in this sample | true for this sample | true generally |
| not shown / not found | not demonstrated / not observed | impossible / does not exist |
| primarily | mainly | only / exclusively |
Inference rule: use the smallest supported reasoning step or combination of evidence the question requires. Reject any choice that needs a new motive, fact, certainty, population, or causal mechanism the text never supplies.
Writer choices: What does this word, sentence, or structure do?
One-line question: Which specific craft-and-structure task is this?
| Question type | Fast method | Trap |
|---|---|---|
| Word meaning | Substitute the choice into the sentence; use nearby context and grammatical role. | The most familiar dictionary meaning. |
| Connotation/effect | Meaning first, then attitude/emphasis. | Stopping at the definition. |
| Figurative language | Translate into the plain literal relationship, then ask what it's for. | Over-symbolizing. |
| Sentence function | What job does it do relative to nearby material? | Restating what it says. |
| Paragraph function | What job does this paragraph do for the passage? | A paragraph summary. |
| Structure | Map the passage as a sequence of jobs/shifts. | Naming one local pattern as the whole structure. |
| Purpose | Action verb + object/effect; prove it with content/style choices. | Main idea disguised as purpose. |
Perspective and source: Who owns this idea?
One-line question: Whose view is this, exactly?
| Source | Keep separate from | Evidence to use |
|---|---|---|
| Author | Narrator or quoted source | Framing, selection, evaluative language, explicit claims. |
| Narrator | Real-world author and characters | Narration, access to thoughts, interpretation. |
| Character | Narrator/author | Dialogue, behavior, perception, change. |
| Researcher/expert/critic | Passage author | Attribution verbs and quotation/paraphrase. |
| Passage A | Passage B | A's own claims, evidence, reservations. |
| Graphic/data source | Passage prose | Measured variables, labels, units, pattern. |
Do not use: Bias or perspective does not mean dishonesty. Infer limitation or stance only from textual evidence.
Claims and evidence: What does the evidence actually support?
One-line question: What is this specific element of the argument doing?
| Element | Question to ask | Common confusion |
|---|---|---|
| Central claim | What position is the argument trying to establish? | Topic or central idea. |
| Secondary claim | What smaller conclusion supports the main argument? | Evidence mistaken for claim. |
| Evidence relevance | Does this evidence bear on the exact claim? | "Same topic" treated as relevant. |
| Soundness | Is the reasoning/evidence usable and credible given the supplied information? | Quantity mistaken for quality. |
| Sufficiency | Is there enough support for the size of the claim? | One relevant example treated as enough. |
| Counterclaim | What competing position is raised? | Mistaken for the author's own view. |
| Response | Does the author rebut, qualify, concede, or reframe? | Assuming total refutation. |
| Fact/opinion/judgment | Verifiable fact, preference/evaluation, or evidence-based evaluative conclusion? | Treating it as a binary fact/opinion choice only. |
| Strengthen/weaken | What exact link would new information support or damage? | General agreement/disagreement with the topic. |
Paired texts: How exactly do the two sources relate?
One-line question: A alone → B alone → relationship. Which relationship is it?
| Relationship | Meaning | Trap |
|---|---|---|
| Agreement | Both support the same proposition. | Same topic only. |
| Partial agreement | Shared premise/point, different limit or conclusion. | Forcing full agreement or disagreement. |
| Qualification | B narrows or limits A without rejecting it. | Calling it contradiction. |
| Challenge | B supplies reasoning/evidence against A's claim. | Different emphasis mistaken for challenge. |
| Extension | B applies or develops A's idea in a new case/direction. | Calling it simple support. |
| Shared evidence, different interpretation | Facts overlap; conclusions differ. | Blending the two conclusions together. |
| Cross-text support | Evidence in one source bears on a claim in the other. | A one-source answer to a both-sources question. |
Do not use: For both-passages questions, verify the choice independently against A and against B. Compatibility with one source is not enough.
Visual evidence: What does the figure show, and at what scope?
One-line question: What is measured, for which group, in what unit, at what time --- level or change, association or cause?
| Distinction | Check | Trap |
|---|---|---|
| Level vs. change | The final value is not the same as the increase/decrease. | Taller final bar = greater improvement. |
| Percentage vs. count | Use the denominator/population size. | Higher percent = more people. |
| Endpoint vs. path | The same endpoint can follow different trajectories. | Ending value summarizes the entire trend. |
| Group/scope | Match the population/condition exactly. | A different subgroup treated as the same one. |
| Time | Match the time point/window. | An earlier or later result substituted in. |
| Approximation | Use only the precision the scale actually supports. | Invented exactness. |
| Association vs. cause | A graph can show co-movement without a mechanism. | Trend treated as proof of causation. |
| Text-visual relation | Confirm, qualify, extend, complicate, contradict, or simply not address. | Assuming every visual supports the passage. |
Final two choices: What exact difference decides the answer?
One-line question: State why each finalist is attractive, then name the single dimension that separates them.
| If finalists differ by... | Use... | Question |
|---|---|---|
| Grammar | Sentence structure | Which construction is actually complete, controlled, and parallel? |
| Meaning | Exact semantic preservation | What does one choice add, remove, or change? |
| Strength | Evidence degree | Which word outruns or understates the evidence? |
| Scope | Stem + passage span | Paragraph, passage, sample, population, one source, or both? |
| Source | Attribution | Who actually says, believes, or measures this? |
| Function | Rhetorical job | What is this sentence/paragraph here to do? |
| Purpose | Stated goal or passage aim | Which option performs the requested job? |
| Evidence | Decisive line/data point | Which choice has direct support, and which needs an assumption? |
| Transition | Logical relationship | What relation is present, before looking at connector vocabulary at all? |
Finalist rule: state why each choice is attractive, then name the single dimension that separates them. Do not change your answer just because one option looks more sophisticated.
Vocabulary quick reference
Chapter 9 teaches this vocabulary inside its reasoning; this section is the fast lookup version, for a final review pass or for checking a word mid-practice without rereading the full chapter.
Reference A: Familiar words with academic meanings. Word, then everyday sense, then the sense this test actually needs.
| Word | Everyday sense | Academic/ACT sense |
|---|---|---|
| address | a location | deal with a topic or problem |
| bear | an animal | carry, tolerate, produce, relate to |
| charge | a fee or accusation | entrust with responsibility; energize |
| compose | write music or text | make up or constitute |
| critical | disapproving | crucial; relating to careful analysis |
| issue | a problem | distribute formally; a single edition |
| maintain | keep in good condition | assert or claim |
| model | a small representation | a simplified representation used to explain or predict |
| reflect | bounce light; see an image | indicate or show; think carefully |
| register | sign up | record formally; a level of formality |
| sustain | keep something going | support; experience or suffer |
| yield | give way, as in traffic | produce a result |
| account | a report; a bank account | account for = explain, or make up a proportion of |
| accrue | rarely used casually | accumulate or build up over time |
| apparent | seeming, clearly visible | seeming or evident, depending on construction |
| attribute | rarely used as a verb casually | assign a cause or quality to |
| channel | a TV station | direct something through a route or use |
| condition | health or repair | a requirement something else depends on |
| constitute | rarely used casually | make up or amount to |
| decline | politely refuse | decrease |
| determine | decide | establish precisely through investigation |
| derive | rarely used casually | obtain from; trace to a source |
| disposal | throwing something away | at one's disposal = available for use |
| execute | carry out a sentence | carry out a plan or procedure |
| grant | money awarded | give; concede or admit a point |
| hold | physically grasp | contain; maintain an opinion; remain valid |
| impose | intrude | place a requirement or burden on |
| observe | watch | notice and remark; comply with a rule |
| reserve | book in advance | hold back; express a qualification |
| render | rarely used casually | make or cause to become; depict |
| secure | safe; lock up | obtain something competitive or difficult |
| solicit | sell door-to-door | formally ask for or seek |
| subservient | rarely used casually | subordinate to; secondary in purpose |
| vehicle | a car or truck | a means by which an idea is carried |
| engender | rarely used casually | bring about or give rise to |
| adhere | stick, physically | follow a rule, belief, or plan closely |
| diffuse | rarely used as an adjective | spread out, less concentrated; as a verb, to spread |
Reference B: Tone and attitude, by family.
| Family | Words |
|---|---|
| Neutral / analytical | neutral, detached, analytical, matter-of-fact, contemplative |
| Caution / doubt | cautious, tentative, uncertain, skeptical, incredulous |
| Criticism / disapproval | critical, dismissive, contemptuous, disdainful, accusatory, strident |
| Warmth / praise | approving, celebratory, effusive, reverent, laudatory |
| Sadness / reflection | wistful, melancholy, forlorn, pensive, subdued, nostalgic, somber, resigned |
| Humor / irony | wry, facetious, flippant, playful, sardonic, macabre, ribald |
| Distance / control | aloof, guarded, reticent, stoic, composed, nonchalant |
| Directness / sincerity | candid, frank, earnest |
| Conflict / repair | defiant, indignant, deferential, conciliatory |
| Instruction | didactic |
| Distrust of motive | cynical |
| Disengagement | apathetic |
Reference C: Argument and evidence verbs.
assert · allege · contend · posit · substantiate · corroborate · verify · validate · qualify · concede · rebut · refute · undermine · bolster · challenge · acknowledge
Reference D: Research and data terms.
sample / population · variable / parameter · baseline / control · correlation / causation · mechanism · confound · robust · significant · empirical / theoretical · qualitative / quantitative · generalize · preliminary
Reference E: Humanities and literary language.
aesthetic · medium · composition · motif · convention · genre · imagery · allusion · symbolism · render · evoke · critique · patron · commission · archive · vernacular
Reference F: High-utility passage words, alphabetical.
acquire · adamant · adequate · apparent · arbitrary · arduous · attribute · bolster · burgeoning · catalyst · censure · clarify · coincide · complacent · conceal · confluence · contention · conventional · convey · copious · cumbersome · deficiency · depict · deplete · derive · discrepancy · dismantle · dominant · erode · estimate · exemplify · expedite · extensive · fastidious · functional · gawky · hitherto · hypothetical · indifferent · innovative · intricate · latter · malleable · momentous · obsolete · paradox · paramount · perpetual · pragmatic · predate · prolific · prominent · radical · retrospect · rigorous · scrutinize · static · staunch · strenuous · subversive · synonymous · tedious · thorny · ubiquitous · unprecedented · viable · vital
Reference G: Confused pairs, quick check. The full set with distinctions lives in Chapter 9; the following are worth a specific look here since they're easy to skim past: accept (agree to receive) / except (excluding) · allusion (indirect reference) / illusion (false perception) · amount (mass quantity) / number (countable quantity) · stationary (not moving) / stationery (writing paper).
Reference H: Transition jobs. The full transition map, organized by the exact logical job each word performs, addition, contrast, concession, cause, result, and the rest, lives in Chapter 9. Use that map rather than this reference when a transition question is the actual decision in front of you; this page is a pointer, not a duplicate.