English and Reading Quick Reference

Chapter 13

Find the rule or distinction you need in seconds.

Every distinction here has already been taught. Nothing in this section is new instruction. Find the page you need, check the decision or paired example, and return to the question. If a reference page takes more than about thirty seconds to use, it is too complicated.

Sentence boundaries: What stands on each side?

One-line question: What stands on each side of the boundary?

Structure	What works	Fast check
Independent clause + independent clause	Period; semicolon; comma + coordinating conjunction when the conjunction fits.	Both sides can stand alone.
Dependent opener + independent clause	Usually comma after the opening dependent clause.	Opening piece cannot stand alone; main clause can.
One subject + two verbs	Usually no comma before the second verb.	After the conjunction, is there a new subject + finite verb + complete thought?
Complete clause + explanation/list/elaboration	Colon, or in suitable rhetoric a dash, after the complete setup.	Left side must be complete for a colon.
Inserted nonessential information	Matched commas, matched dashes, or parentheses.	Remove the insertion; core sentence remains and still identifies the same thing.
Fragment	Restore the missing main clause or finite structure; punctuation alone cannot repair it.	Find subject + finite verb + complete thought.

Do not use: "Comma = pause." Do not treat semicolon, period, and comma + FANBOYS as interchangeable without checking the full wording and logical relation.

Punctuation: What job does the mark have?

One-line question: What job does this mark have here?

Mark	Job	Requirement / trap
Comma	Introductory material, series, nonessential material, some clause joins with a coordinator.	Never insert merely because a long sentence feels like it pauses.
Paired commas	Set off a nonessential insertion.	If one side of the insertion is internal, the other side usually needs its partner.
Semicolon	Join closely related independent clauses; separate complex list items.	Independent clauses on both sides when used as a sentence join.
Colon	Introduce a list, example, explanation, or elaboration.	Complete sentence before it; do not place after a verb/preposition still awaiting its complement.
Dash	Mark a strong interruption, inserted material, or end-of-clause elaboration.	Use structure, not "stronger comma" folklore.
Parentheses	Set off material that is grammatically removable and relatively separate.	Do not mix with commas/dashes as a mismatched pair.
No punctuation	Essential attachment or uninterrupted sentence core.	Subject-verb, verb-object/complement, preposition-object, and modifier-target often must stay together.

Do not use: Essential versus nonessential is not decided by removal alone. Ask whether the sentence still points to the same person or thing and preserves the intended identification.

Agreement, verbs, and modifiers: What controls the form?

One-line question: What actually governs this decision, not just what's nearby?

Decision	Controller	Fast test
Verb number	True subject	Ignore intervening phrases/clauses; restore normal order if inverted.
Verb tense/form	Timeline + helping verb	Ask when the event occurs and what form the auxiliary requires.
Pronoun number/person	Exact antecedent	Name the noun the pronoun replaces.
Pronoun case	Grammatical role	Remove the other noun/pronoun in a compound; test he/him for who/whom.
Modifier	Word logically described	Opening modifier should point to the subject that follows; internal modifier should sit by its target.
Relative clause	Noun identified + role inside the clause	Which noun does the clause describe? Does who/whom/which/that fill the needed role?
Parallelism	Established grammatical pattern	Match noun with noun, -ing phrase with -ing phrase, clause with clause when equal items are coordinated.

Do not use: Do not let the nearest noun take control merely because it is nearby.

Possession, comparisons, and usage: Which distinction matters?

One-line question: Which specific usage rule actually applies here?

Distinction	Quick rule	Example check
Plural vs. possessive	First ask whether there is ownership/relationship. Plain plurals take no apostrophe.	students / student's / students'
Contraction vs. possessive pronoun	Expand the contraction.	it's = it is/has; its = possessive
Who vs. whom	Subject vs. object role.	he → who; him → whom
Reflexive	Use when it appropriately refers back to the subject, or for legitimate emphasis.	myself is not a formal substitute for me/I
Comparative vs. superlative	Comparative usually for two; superlative for a larger set.	better of two; best of three or more
Double comparison	Use one comparative/superlative marker.	clearer, not more clearer
Logical comparison	Compare equivalent categories.	the salary of A vs. that of B; A's books vs. those of B
Confused pair	Use part of speech + exact meaning + context.	affect/effect, allude/elude, imply/infer

Wording choices: What meaning, degree, or tone changes?

One-line question: What dimension actually separates these two choices?

Concision ladder: correctness → meaning → required detail/qualification → logic → tone/register → then economy.

If two choices differ by...	Ask...	Common trap
Length	Does the shorter choice preserve every needed idea?	Shortest-answer shortcut.
Precision	Which word states the exact relationship or action?	Vague but grammatical wording.
Strength	How strong is the evidence/context?	Overstatement or understatement.
Connotation	What attitude or association does the word carry?	Dictionary-synonym trap.
Register	What level of formality does the surrounding passage establish?	"More formal = better."
Voice	Which construction emphasizes the right actor/action and fits the context?	"Passive = wrong."

Relevance and purpose: Does this sentence help the passage?

One-line question: Decide the action first, then find the reason that actually proves it.

Question	Fast decision	Trap
Relevant?	Does it serve this paragraph's focus/job, not merely the broad topic?	True and interesting, but useless here.
Redundant?	Has this information already been given?	Confusing repetition with irrelevance.
Best support?	What does the paragraph still need?	Longest or most detailed choice.
Sentence purpose?	What job does the sentence perform here?	Paraphrasing content instead of function.
Stated goal?	List every part of the requested goal and check each one.	Broad topic match treated as goal completion.
Add/delete reason?	The reason must accurately describe the sentence and its role.	Right yes/no paired with a false rationale.

Placement and transitions: What must come before and after?

One-line question: What does this sentence point back to, and what does it prepare or connect to next?

Signal	Use it for	Do not stop at
this/these/such/they/that result	Finding the antecedent or prior idea.	The nearest matching noun only.
Dates/time markers	Chronology.	Topic similarity.
Cause/result language	Dependency order.	Sentence smoothness.
General claim + example	Keeping the illustration beside the claim.	Repeated vocabulary alone.
Problem + response	Keeping the response after the problem/question.	Paragraph length.
Contrast/concession	Positioning against the idea being qualified/contrasted.	Any nearby opposite-sounding sentence.
Paragraph bridge	Reading enough of both paragraphs to name the movement.	The last sentence of the prior paragraph only.

Do not use: Transitions are not interchangeable within a category. Name the relationship first — addition, contrast, concession, cause/result, example, sequence, condition, qualification — then choose the word.

Main point and details: How much of the passage is the question asking about?

One-line question: What scale does this question actually operate at?

Task	What to keep	Common wrong answer
Central idea	Subject + controlling development/point across the relevant passage.	Topic only; one paragraph only; broad life lesson.
Literary theme	Meaning that emerges from actions, conflict, relationship, or change.	A generic moral not earned by the passage.
Summary	Major development and important qualification.	Vivid minor detail; added judgment; wrong emphasis.
Explicit detail	The exact fact, often paraphrased.	A nearby but different detail.
Context detail	Read enough around the locator to capture qualification/reference.	Quoted-line-only reading.
Compound detail	Every component named by the stem.	A partial answer.

Inference and scope: How far can the evidence take you?

One-line question: Does the answer's wording match the evidence's actual strength?

Evidence says...	Answer may say...	Do not upgrade to...
may / could	possible / suggested	will / must / certain
supports	supports / strengthens	proves
associated with	associated / related	causes
one explanation	an explanation	the only explanation
some / several	some / several	most / all
observed in this sample	true for this sample	true generally
not shown / not found	not demonstrated / not observed	impossible / does not exist
primarily	mainly	only / exclusively

Inference rule: use the smallest supported reasoning step or combination of evidence the question requires. Reject any choice that needs a new motive, fact, certainty, population, or causal mechanism the text never supplies.

Writer choices: What does this word, sentence, or structure do?

One-line question: Which specific craft-and-structure task is this?

Question type	Fast method	Trap
Word meaning	Substitute the choice into the sentence; use nearby context and grammatical role.	The most familiar dictionary meaning.
Connotation/effect	Meaning first, then attitude/emphasis.	Stopping at the definition.
Figurative language	Translate into the plain literal relationship, then ask what it's for.	Over-symbolizing.
Sentence function	What job does it do relative to nearby material?	Restating what it says.
Paragraph function	What job does this paragraph do for the passage?	A paragraph summary.
Structure	Map the passage as a sequence of jobs/shifts.	Naming one local pattern as the whole structure.
Purpose	Action verb + object/effect; prove it with content/style choices.	Main idea disguised as purpose.

Perspective and source: Who owns this idea?

One-line question: Whose view is this, exactly?

Source	Keep separate from	Evidence to use
Author	Narrator or quoted source	Framing, selection, evaluative language, explicit claims.
Narrator	Real-world author and characters	Narration, access to thoughts, interpretation.
Character	Narrator/author	Dialogue, behavior, perception, change.
Researcher/expert/critic	Passage author	Attribution verbs and quotation/paraphrase.
Passage A	Passage B	A's own claims, evidence, reservations.
Graphic/data source	Passage prose	Measured variables, labels, units, pattern.

Do not use: Bias or perspective does not mean dishonesty. Infer limitation or stance only from textual evidence.

Claims and evidence: What does the evidence actually support?

One-line question: What is this specific element of the argument doing?

Element	Question to ask	Common confusion
Central claim	What position is the argument trying to establish?	Topic or central idea.
Secondary claim	What smaller conclusion supports the main argument?	Evidence mistaken for claim.
Evidence relevance	Does this evidence bear on the exact claim?	"Same topic" treated as relevant.
Soundness	Is the reasoning/evidence usable and credible given the supplied information?	Quantity mistaken for quality.
Sufficiency	Is there enough support for the size of the claim?	One relevant example treated as enough.
Counterclaim	What competing position is raised?	Mistaken for the author's own view.
Response	Does the author rebut, qualify, concede, or reframe?	Assuming total refutation.
Fact/opinion/judgment	Verifiable fact, preference/evaluation, or evidence-based evaluative conclusion?	Treating it as a binary fact/opinion choice only.
Strengthen/weaken	What exact link would new information support or damage?	General agreement/disagreement with the topic.

Paired texts: How exactly do the two sources relate?

One-line question: A alone → B alone → relationship. Which relationship is it?

Relationship	Meaning	Trap
Agreement	Both support the same proposition.	Same topic only.
Partial agreement	Shared premise/point, different limit or conclusion.	Forcing full agreement or disagreement.
Qualification	B narrows or limits A without rejecting it.	Calling it contradiction.
Challenge	B supplies reasoning/evidence against A's claim.	Different emphasis mistaken for challenge.
Extension	B applies or develops A's idea in a new case/direction.	Calling it simple support.
Shared evidence, different interpretation	Facts overlap; conclusions differ.	Blending the two conclusions together.
Cross-text support	Evidence in one source bears on a claim in the other.	A one-source answer to a both-sources question.

Do not use: For both-passages questions, verify the choice independently against A and against B. Compatibility with one source is not enough.

Visual evidence: What does the figure show, and at what scope?

One-line question: What is measured, for which group, in what unit, at what time — level or change, association or cause?

Distinction	Check	Trap
Level vs. change	The final value is not the same as the increase/decrease.	Taller final bar = greater improvement.
Percentage vs. count	Use the denominator/population size.	Higher percent = more people.
Endpoint vs. path	The same endpoint can follow different trajectories.	Ending value summarizes the entire trend.
Group/scope	Match the population/condition exactly.	A different subgroup treated as the same one.
Time	Match the time point/window.	An earlier or later result substituted in.
Approximation	Use only the precision the scale actually supports.	Invented exactness.
Association vs. cause	A graph can show co-movement without a mechanism.	Trend treated as proof of causation.
Text-visual relation	Confirm, qualify, extend, complicate, contradict, or simply not address.	Assuming every visual supports the passage.

Final two choices: What exact difference decides the answer?

One-line question: State why each finalist is attractive, then name the single dimension that separates them.

If finalists differ by...	Use...	Question
Grammar	Sentence structure	Which construction is actually complete, controlled, and parallel?
Meaning	Exact semantic preservation	What does one choice add, remove, or change?
Strength	Evidence degree	Which word outruns or understates the evidence?
Scope	Stem + passage span	Paragraph, passage, sample, population, one source, or both?
Source	Attribution	Who actually says, believes, or measures this?
Function	Rhetorical job	What is this sentence/paragraph here to do?
Purpose	Stated goal or passage aim	Which option performs the requested job?
Evidence	Decisive line/data point	Which choice has direct support, and which needs an assumption?
Transition	Logical relationship	What relation is present, before looking at connector vocabulary at all?

Finalist rule: state why each choice is attractive, then name the single dimension that separates them. Do not change your answer just because one option looks more sophisticated.

Vocabulary quick reference

Chapter 9 teaches this vocabulary inside its reasoning; this section is the fast lookup version, for a final review pass or for checking a word mid-practice without rereading the full chapter.

Reference A: Familiar words with academic meanings. Word, then everyday sense, then the sense this test actually needs.

Word	Everyday sense	Academic/ACT sense
address	a location	deal with a topic or problem
bear	an animal	carry, tolerate, produce, relate to
charge	a fee or accusation	entrust with responsibility; energize
compose	write music or text	make up or constitute
critical	disapproving	crucial; relating to careful analysis
issue	a problem	distribute formally; a single edition
maintain	keep in good condition	assert or claim
model	a small representation	a simplified representation used to explain or predict
reflect	bounce light; see an image	indicate or show; think carefully
register	sign up	record formally; a level of formality
sustain	keep something going	support; experience or suffer
yield	give way, as in traffic	produce a result
account	a report; a bank account	account for = explain, or make up a proportion of
accrue	rarely used casually	accumulate or build up over time
apparent	seeming, clearly visible	seeming or evident, depending on construction
attribute	rarely used as a verb casually	assign a cause or quality to
channel	a TV station	direct something through a route or use
condition	health or repair	a requirement something else depends on
constitute	rarely used casually	make up or amount to
decline	politely refuse	decrease
determine	decide	establish precisely through investigation
derive	rarely used casually	obtain from; trace to a source
disposal	throwing something away	at one's disposal = available for use
execute	carry out a sentence	carry out a plan or procedure
grant	money awarded	give; concede or admit a point
hold	physically grasp	contain; maintain an opinion; remain valid
impose	intrude	place a requirement or burden on
observe	watch	notice and remark; comply with a rule
reserve	book in advance	hold back; express a qualification
render	rarely used casually	make or cause to become; depict
secure	safe; lock up	obtain something competitive or difficult
solicit	sell door-to-door	formally ask for or seek
subservient	rarely used casually	subordinate to; secondary in purpose
vehicle	a car or truck	a means by which an idea is carried
engender	rarely used casually	bring about or give rise to
adhere	stick, physically	follow a rule, belief, or plan closely
diffuse	rarely used as an adjective	spread out, less concentrated; as a verb, to spread

Reference B: Tone and attitude, by family.

Family	Words
Neutral / analytical	neutral, detached, analytical, matter-of-fact, contemplative
Caution / doubt	cautious, tentative, uncertain, skeptical, incredulous
Criticism / disapproval	critical, dismissive, contemptuous, disdainful, accusatory, strident
Warmth / praise	approving, celebratory, effusive, reverent, laudatory
Sadness / reflection	wistful, melancholy, forlorn, pensive, subdued, nostalgic, somber, resigned
Humor / irony	wry, facetious, flippant, playful, sardonic, macabre, ribald
Distance / control	aloof, guarded, reticent, stoic, composed, nonchalant
Directness / sincerity	candid, frank, earnest
Conflict / repair	defiant, indignant, deferential, conciliatory
Instruction	didactic
Distrust of motive	cynical
Disengagement	apathetic

Reference C: Argument and evidence verbs.

assert · allege · contend · posit · substantiate · corroborate · verify · validate · qualify · concede · rebut · refute · undermine · bolster · challenge · acknowledge

Reference D: Research and data terms.

sample / population · variable / parameter · baseline / control · correlation / causation · mechanism · confound · robust · significant · empirical / theoretical · qualitative / quantitative · generalize · preliminary

Reference E: Humanities and literary language.

aesthetic · medium · composition · motif · convention · genre · imagery · allusion · symbolism · render · evoke · critique · patron · commission · archive · vernacular

Reference F: High-utility passage words, alphabetical.

acquire · adamant · adequate · apparent · arbitrary · arduous · attribute · bolster · burgeoning · catalyst · censure · clarify · coincide · complacent · conceal · confluence · contention · conventional · convey · copious · cumbersome · deficiency · depict · deplete · derive · discrepancy · dismantle · dominant · erode · estimate · exemplify · expedite · extensive · fastidious · functional · gawky · hitherto · hypothetical · indifferent · innovative · intricate · latter · malleable · momentous · obsolete · paradox · paramount · perpetual · pragmatic · predate · prolific · prominent · radical · retrospect · rigorous · scrutinize · static · staunch · strenuous · subversive · synonymous · tedious · thorny · ubiquitous · unprecedented · viable · vital

Reference G: Confused pairs, quick check. The full set with distinctions lives in Chapter 9; the following are worth a specific look here since they're easy to skim past: accept (agree to receive) / except (excluding) · allusion (indirect reference) / illusion (false perception) · amount (mass quantity) / number (countable quantity) · stationary (not moving) / stationery (writing paper).

Reference H: Transition jobs. The full transition map, organized by the exact logical job each word performs, addition, contrast, concession, cause, result, and the rest, lives in Chapter 9. Use that map rather than this reference when a transition question is the actual decision in front of you; this page is a pointer, not a duplicate.

Part VI: Practice Tests